Sender: Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture From: "Editors, _Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture_" Subject: Volume 3, Issue 1 (February 15, 1995) To: Multiple recipients of list CJMOVIES Volume 3, Issue 1 (February 15, 1995) Pages 1- JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND POPULAR CULTURE** (ISSN 1070-8286) ** Published by the School of Criminal Justice at the University at Albany, State University of New York. Available electronically on Bitnet from SUNYCRJ@ALBNYVM1.BITNET or on Internet from SUNYCRJ@UACSC2.ALBANY.EDU. All rights reserved. Table of Contents Research Note Perceptions of the Criminal Justice System: Television Imagery and Public Knowledge in the United States By Connie L. McNeely PERCEPTIONS OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM: Television Imagery and Public Knowledge in the United States by Connie L. McNeely Department of Sociology University of California, Santa Barbara mcneely@alishaw.ucsb.edu Abstract Research has suggested that a majority of people in the United States receive much of their impressions and knowledge of the criminal justice system through the media, especially through entertainment television viewing. Drawing on this work, a programmatic research approach based on three primary strategies in selected substantive areas is developed for in depth inquiry and study of what people actually know, or think they know, about the criminal justice system. First, longitudinal content and discourse analyses of top-rated television programs, in which the main themes and protagonists are concerned with various dimensions of crime and law enforcement, are considered in order to obtain a general perspective on portrayals of the criminal justice system over time in the entertainment medium. The second line of inquiry involves national survey research on the viewing of related television programs, along several dimensions, with questions pertaining to perceptions of the legal system and an understanding of its operation. These strategies are then combined into a third for an interactive examination of the problem, proposing a somewhat different and compelling investigation of the relationship between law and society, with important theoretical and empirical implications for cultural, political, and criminal justice studies in general. Our examinations within the sociology of law and related criminal justice studies tend to be concerned, to varying degrees, with the autonomy of the criminal justice system, or aspects of it, as socially determinant (or vice versa) and how it functions (or is supposed to function); we tend to primarily study the features that characterize law enforcement and the legal system. However, I would like to pose a slightly different issue than is usually addressed in this area of study. I suggest that we look more specifically at _perceptions_ of criminal justice and law enforcement and the way in which it penetrates social life and social thinking (cf. Lempert and Sanders 1986) -- that is, not necessarily how the criminal justice system actually works, but rather how people _think_ that it works, whether accurate or not. Given that the criminal justice system presides over, is embedded in, and is largely defined by and in relation to the wider society, a crucial matter that arises for consideration is actual public knowledge of the operation of the criminal justice system. Public knowledge and perceptions and the social forces that cause and shape them must be understood if we are to gain a clearer understanding of the broader relationship between law and society. Before we can draw a meaningful picture of criminal justice and law enforcement in society, we must seriously probe the nature of public knowledge and perceptions of social control processes, especially the legal system (Saney 1986, p. 8). In other words, what is the image of the criminal justice system in the public eye? How is the system perceived by different segments of society, and by society as a whole? How much concrete knowledge does the public actually have of the criminal justice system? That is, to what degree does the public understand the workings of the system? Moreover, from where do their impressions and knowledge of the criminal justice system derive? These are crucial questions, delineating important dimensions of the relationship between the criminal justice system and the society of which it is a key component. Despite possible impressions to the contrary, most members of the population actually have few opportunities for direct interaction with the criminal justice system. Yet, given its centrality and determinant role, the public must somehow become "socialized" to it on one level or another.[1] While certainly there are other sources of information, research has suggested that a majority of people in the United States receive much of their impressions and knowledge of the criminal justice system through the media, in particular through entertainment television viewing (Surette 1992). Indeed, in some ways, the most direct "contact" that most persons have with the criminal justice system is through the "television experience." This point is very much in keeping with depictions of increasingly "postmodern" life in which the authority of the family and school has greatly waned (Saney 1986), and television is progressively the principal means of (or replacement for) "social contact" and socialization (Giddens 1981; Laywood 1985). Furthermore, research on television as an agent of socialization and source of knowledge and information has indeed been very suggestive along these lines, for both children and adults (Gerbner and Gross 1976a, 1976b; Altheide 1985; Roberts and Doob 1990; Drucker 1989). We know that the average household in the United States has a television turned on for almost eight hours a day, with the average individual watching it for approximately four hours a day (Papazian 1988; Roper Organization 1983). Moreover, television penetrates almost 99 percent of the population; i.e., virtually the entire United States population has access to television. Next to the family and school, television is the one agent that reaches virtually all segments of the population almost from birth and, although most people ostensibly watch television primarily for entertainment, there is growing evidence that this activity, in and of itself, has considerable social, behavioral, and psychological effects, far beyond pure leisure and entertainment (Oskamp 1984), and that television is a key source of social information. With this in mind, I suggest that we give serious consideration to the "social learning" effects of television, in terms of the transmission of information (Spring 1992), in our investigations of public knowledge about the criminal justice system, and of the relationship between law and society in general. Taking the lead from studies in the sociology of culture and mass communications and media studies, we can conceptualize television programs in the whole as a cultural product and social force, affecting society and involved in the process of social development, or socialization. What we see in these programs is both socially and historically situated and delineated, and at the same time capable of effecting socialization and, to some degree, social construction, reproduction, and change. This perspective allows for two separate but highly interrelated approaches to examining public impressions and knowledge of the criminal justice system. It can give us a sociological insight and understanding both of 1) the general study of the system itself, as an expression of a social phenomenon and social facts, and of 2) its complex, mediated relationship with the wider society. How then is the legal system, or crime and law enforcement, portrayed on television? We can use answers to this question to determine and develop an overall _social image_ or depiction of the legal system. As a cultural product, television programs and images are conceived as reflections of society. This reflection theory, in its most essentialist expression, posits that cultural products mirror aspects of society and of the social order that gives rise to them (Griswold 1981). While there are several variants of reflection theory, this is in fact the basic idea on which they all rest, i.e., that culture is the mirror of social reality (Griswold 1994, p. 22). Thus, the cultural product or object reflects the social structures and patterns of the wider society. In the most straightforward functionalist version of reflection theory, in which cultural products reflect social reality, there is the assumption that both creators and audiences are passive, without self-interests. In addition, the functionalist model allows no place for the independent influence of cultural production organizations (e.g., broadcast companies, networks, production companies, etc.). However, a more critical approach assumes cultural products that reflect, and reflect on, social meanings that are grounded in the social structure in terms of hierarchical relations, interests, and the status quo. In other words, while some perspectives posit that the media simply reflect society, other more critical perspectives maintain that they also uphold and extend the societal status quo.[2] In any case, this idea of culture reflecting society or the social structure provides us with models of the connection between cultural products and society, and suggests the use of cultural products as social evidence in order to understand broader societal influences and images (Griswold 1994). Thus, we must consider the whole idea of reflection and its related implications when we think about television programs as cultural products reflecting images of reality. These reflected aspects contain more than just the characters and their attributes, and associated story lines. They include specific subject matter, format, and scheduling and duration conventions, thus contextualizing the images that are presented. All of these factors provide specific information from which social images and knowledge can be determined. As such, television portrayals of crime and law enforcement provide a concrete image of the system and its operation as seen through the public lens. Moreover, these factors provide information from which conclusions can be drawn (and thus provide important areas for research and study in their own right). Just as these aspects of television programming come together as a representative image of the system, they also act to transmit information and influence the _perception_ of the system in actuality. This is a subtle, yet important distinction. People use the knowledge that they obtain from the media to construct an image of the world (Surette 1992); these television portrayals give viewers (and others participating in their production) clues about society and, thus, also act to "socialize" the public to a particular image of the criminal justice system. The depiction of the system that is seen on television is that which is most widely presented and available to the viewing public -- and thus to the population as a whole. Therefore, it is an image of the legal system that we might expect to be most prevalent among the public and most influential in their perception and knowledge of how it works. In short, television programs provide an entire array of information that is contextualized through the various related aspects of television production. Together, these aspects form a cultural representation of the criminal justice system and provide the public with information and guidelines about it, whether factual or not. Thus, future analyses might consider them in conjunction with one another and with society in general. Drawing on this understanding of the reflexive nature of the relationship between television programs and society, we can elucidate, at least, in part a number of dimensions in the public perception of the operations of the criminal justice system. However, we must keep in mind that television programs are not created in a vacuum, and it would be misleading to treat them in isolation from society (Adler 1976). Particularly in relation to presentations of the legal system, television programs are complex products that incorporate societal attitudes and atmosphere (Wolff 1981), and they use shared symbols and conventions in the production of images (Griswold 1987). These symbols and conventions incorporate ideas that any "well socialized" member of society can recognize and understand (Becker 1982). Thus, by reflecting some image of the criminal justice system in a way that is, by plan and design, understandable by the general public, television programs also convey information and messages that the general public can use in "understanding" this important component of society.[3] While there exists numerous debates on the influence of television, claims that it is a major socializing agent in society are relatively undisputed.[4] Although specification of this process remains a matter of speculation and research, social scientists have discovered that people do take cues about behavior and values from what they see on television. As a cultural product, television provides information about society, supplying "tools" that enable people to be integrated into and "know" it (cf. Swidler 1986). Therefore, we must determine what the overarching television portrayals of criminal justice and law enforcement are and how they affect public perceptions of the system as a whole (Theberge, in Lichter and Lichter 1983, p.vii; Surette 1992; Gerbner 1993). (Of course, this implies that an important research task should be the tracing and documenting of content and categorical trends and patterns in the presentation of crime and criminal justice to determine the overall social depiction in the first place.) Furthermore, television presents both explicit and implicit, intended and unintended images and messages, that can in turn differentially affect viewer perception. Despite recent arguments on the possible antisocial (read "anti-institutionalized social order") consequences of television viewing, growing evidence indicates that television programming is generally supportive of the status quo (Stark 1987). Some of the most extensive and influential work in the area of media effects has been done by Gerbner and his associates (e.g., 1978, 1980, 1993). Despite criticisms of this research (Hirsch 1980; Hughes 1980), there has been consistent and somewhat convincing evidence that television viewing cultivates or, at the very least, influences certain views of society, particularly those supporting the "dominant beliefs and values" of society. Indeed, throughout history, the primary function of the cultural media has been the legitimation and maintenance of authority; it has always reinforced established authority, teaching that when rules are broken, retribution is visited upon the violators. The importance of the existing order is always implicit in media messages and programs (Gerbner and Gross 1976b, pp.89-91). This must, of course, be a crucial consideration in the related study of the criminal justice system. Television programs tend to portray and support perspectives supportive of the status quo, both explicitly and implicitly. Thus, we might expect that related programs typically have projected images and information about the criminal justice system that contribute to the maintenance of the social and political order and to social control. Television programs, especially those explicitly dealing with aspects of the legal system, promote "social stability and control by reinforcing the perceived legitimacy of current power arrangements" (Carlson 1985, p. 2; Weigel and Jessor 1973). That is, they reproduce and reflect the current social order, with broader implications for reflecting and influencing public perceptions. However, again, most of the work in this area has been concerned more with the formation of opinions and attitudes, i.e., with the effects of the information on social attitudes, rather than with the actual information, or "knowledge," itself. Here, I suggest that we take a step back and ask what that transmitted information is and what it tells us about the actual operation of the criminal justice system. Rather than making any a priori assumptions, public knowledge of the system in relation to television portrayals is the problem for investigation. TELEVISION PORTRAYALS OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM In general, crime and law enforcement television programs have been extremely popular, with consistently high ratings over time. More than a quarter of all prime time shows from the 1960s to the 1990s have focused on themes of crime or criminal justice, which constitute the largest single subject matter on television today, across all types of programming (Surette 1992). Obviously, the nature of "television reality" is a key issue for this investigation. Numerous diverse and complex factors influence the types of programs and their contents that are shown during prime time, e.g., societal norms, values, and laws; agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission, Congress, and advocacy groups; the organization and interests of the broadcasting industry itself; and viewer attitudes and values (Cantor and Cantor 1992; Himmelweit 1980). Messages transmitted by crime and law enforcement programs must be explored to determine a number of matters -- e.g., whether they are plentiful and accurate sources of information on legal processes, rights, and procedures; whether the legitimacy of the legal system is affirmed; whether rights are supported or are portrayed as an obstacle to effective law enforcement; whether the courts and the police are portrayed as effective, honest, or repressive; or whether the system is portrayed as corrupt, biased, or worthy of support (Carlson 1985). Some research has been done along these lines, providing broad (and, at times, conflicting) analyses of the content of crime and law enforcement programs. Drawing on Carlson's (1985) review of the literature, we see that these studies have typically covered five primary interrelated areas: knowledge of and information on the system, compliance, rights, police images, and violence and victimization. Each of these substantive areas can provide guidance in developing a comprehensive research program focusing on television imagery and public perceptions of the criminal justice system. A. Information on the System As we have discussed, there are arguments to the effect that television, even when entertaining, is a powerful educational medium. For example, as Gunther (1971, p. 7) notes, "there must be millions of people who have learned, simply by watching crime dramas in the past few years, that they have the right to remain silent when arrested." The American Civil Liberties Union has likewise said that television crime and law enforcement programs provide and "excellent legal education for the public" (in Gunther 1971, p. 8). However, on the other hand, many analysts find television programs to be poor sources of accurate knowledge regarding even the formal operation of the legal system, due to omission and distortion of information and the higher priority of dramatic necessity. For example, most police crime shows depict a criminal investigation process ending with apprehension, arrest, or violent death of the suspect. The stories often include legal and illegal searches and seizures, and arrested suspects are often "read their rights." Postarrest procedures -- e.g., arraignments, pretrial hearings, jury selection, bonding, plea bargaining, trials, sentencing, etc. (Alpert 1985) -- are rarely shown. Even on courtroom drama series, these procedures are rarely seen; neither are instances where cases are resolved before going to trial. In addition, in reality, criminal trials seldom end in courtroom confessions as they frequently do for dramatic effect on television (Carlson 1985; Daley 1972; Lewis 1974; Winick and Winick 1974; Drucker 1989). The subject matter of programs provide information about the types of issues confronting like characters in "real life." This point is even more dramatically expressed in so-called "reality-based" shows, of which there has been an increasingly burgeoning number in recent years (Cavender and Bond-Maupin 1993). In actuality, these shows are typically, to a large degree, "programmed and staged" (even if only to accommodate technical requirements). Yet, they are presented as "real," and are often produced in a format and style associated with documentary or news reporting, about which questions of social presentation and accuracy can also be posed (Altheide 1985). Despite some descriptions as "tabloid" television, these shows are evidently perceived in the manner in which they are presented and thus, although currently not dominant in prime time viewing slots, require serious consideration in terms of the "information" they present for public consumption and perception. Of course, there are also some very compelling arguments that maintain that television information and messages are, in fact, not meant to facilitate accurate learning about the criminal justice system, but rather are intended to make it less understandable and clear (Katsh 1983), in support of social control. Crime and law enforcement programs show television characters, not rules or laws, as solving the conflicts; i.e., "television personifies the law.... By portraying the law in this way, television makes the legal system and the very foundation of the law less understandable" (Carlson 1985, p.36). This argument corresponds to assertions that television supports the wider system and ties into arguments that the legal system functions better with a relatively ignorant citizenry. Briefly, television programs on crime and law enforcement are typically characterized by omissions or distortions on information about the legal system. (I might also mention here that programs focusing on prisons are almost nonexistent in the overall scheme of television programming production and content.) In any case, while there are scenes where suspects are read their Miranda rights and search warrants are served, some researchers maintain that little other accurate information is forthcoming from television portrayals of the formal operation of the legal system. As Surette (1992, pp.245-246) argues, "in every category -- crimes, criminals, crime fighters, the investigation of crime, arrests, case processing, and case dispositions -- the media present a world of crime and justice that is not found in reality." Of course, more longitudinal documentation of related television program content is clearly required in this regard, to determine these trends over time and to provide a basis for further theoretical and empirical analysis. B. Compliance to the Criminal Justice System The most dominant message of prime time crime programs is that "crime does not pay" and that criminals are highly undesirable and unworthy characters (Carlson 1985). Most shows portray a lawful life as clearly superior to an unlawful one, and almost all television criminals are caught or thwarted (Lichter and Lichter 1983). This type of message can make a powerful contribution to general social control and compliance. Carlson (1985) denotes three characteristics of crime and law enforcement programs that contribute to messages of compliance as the most appropriate behavior: 1) the sharp distinction drawn between criminals and law enforcers, 2) the often violent consequence of criminal activity, and 3) the effectiveness of television law enforcement. First, television criminals are often given a wide variety of "negative character traits" in addition to their criminality, and their motives are typically greed or base wickedness or cruelty. On the other hand, law enforcers are depicted as relatively moral. Although they may be independent and conflict with the bureaucracy, they are always clearly on the side of the law and conventional morality. Character depictions are highly important, especially in regard to broader social attitudes and relations. The character attributes convey messages about different "kinds" of persons and segments of the population. In terms of social learning, these messages help to define the function, usefulness, abilities, and other features of various groups of people (Gerbner 1993). These characteristics need not be obvious. Indeed, "we are usually not aware of the relative shadings of each role because each is rationalized by the particular plot.... We are even less aware of the associations common to large numbers of characterizations that we do not perceive to be parts of a wider pattern" (Gerbner 1993, p.1). Second, violent resolutions to criminal activities are overrepresented in television crime programs (Gerbner 1972; Dominick 1973). A violent end makes clear who is winner and who is loser, who is superior and who is inferior. Third, while high levels of police and court effectiveness in television programs may be unrealistic, their portrayal as such arguably encourages certain perceptions of the system in operation. Police almost always get their way; crimes almost never go unsolved; murderers are almost always caught; and courts and juries almost never let crooks go free (Acuri 1977, p. 240). In short, crime does not pay. Compliance is clearly central to television portrayals of crime and law enforcement. However, it has been argued that, while television programs ostensibly support legal compliance, the real message is that people, not the law itself, insure compliance (Katsh 1983). An emphasis on personalities resolving disputes, rather than the law, obscures the very basis and rationalization of the legal system. Television apparently presents a distortion of reality in terms of both compliance and the nature of the criminal justice system. C. Due Process and Rights Television emphasizes repression of criminal conduct as the most important function of the legal system, in support of the social order. For example, in a typical scenario of police shows, the viewer sees the crime being committed and knows the identity of the criminal. Thus, when the police conduct an illegal search, it seems more "acceptable," or at least less questionable, than it might otherwise, since guilt has been established in the eyes of the viewer. In the same light, the viewer might feel that a television lawyer or judge goes too far in protecting a suspect's rights, with innocent people suffering as a consequence (Carlson 1985). Most programs portray illegal searches as essential, revealing a vital piece of evidence; if police brutalize witnesses, it is to obtain a crucial lead for the capture of vicious criminals. The disparity between the televisually constructed reality of the criminal justice system and the actual reality means that the public receives an image of crime and justice that typically supports a policy of crime control mechanisms ahead of due process protections (Surette 1992). Television portrayals of violations of constitutional rights are typically not identified as such, and even if so, are depicted as necessary for effective crime control and system maintenance (Haney and Manzolati 1980). In this way, whether viewed as psychological manipulation or not, public perceptions and knowledge of the actual criminal justice system can be affected. D. Portrayals of Police Of course, television images of police can be expressed along a number of dimensions. Most television law enforcers are directly connected with the police, courts, or a government agency, and they are overwhelmingly white, male, and middle-aged, although it might be that over time the age category appears a bit more flexible, occasionally shifting between "youngish" and middle-aged white males. Furthermore, not surprisingly given dramatic "requirements," television unrealistically shows police work as primarily investigative, generally ignoring routine police work; it is depicted as glamorous, with a great deal of independence and access to tremendous resources, with an extremely high rate of success. Moreover, in general, television portrayals of police are generally positive, showing them as honest and law-abiding (Haney and Manzolati 1980; Acuri 1977; Dominick 1973). E. Victimization Murder is the single most common crime on television. The other most common television crimes are robbery, kidnapping, and aggravated assault (Lichter and Lichter 1983). "Most of the crimes are vicious attacks by truly frightening calculating criminals on innocent victims.... Violence seems to permeate all human activity and acts of murder, rape, kidnapping, and especially terrorism are on the increase" (Carlson 1985, p.48). Some analyses show females of all ages, young boys, nonwhites, and lower or upper class persons are the most likely victims of violence, with female victimization rapidly increasing (Gerbner et al. 1978, 1979; Dominick 1973). In any case, overall, television reality posits a great likelihood of being involved in violent activity and crime can occur almost anywhere. On the other hand, the television likelihood of being a victim of violent crime is greater if one is young or elderly, white, lower class, and female. However, the probability of television victimization is relatively high across all groups of the population (Gerbner 1993; Carlson 1985). This type of portrayal might have a powerful influence on the viewing public's perceptions of reality in regard to the criminal justice system. In particular, it seems highly supportive of the status quo and conventional views of "proper" behavior and morality, necessitating extreme levels of crime control and latitude for law enforcers, and maintenance of the legal system. This point again suggests that television programming, as a cultural object, is not only reflective, but instrumental in supporting the ideologies and beliefs of mainstream, or dominant, society (cf. Swidler 1986). RESEARCH STRATEGIES Each of these substantive areas represent important topics for analytic consideration, separately and in combination. Here, I attend the social psychological approaches that have often characterized related work on crime and on the presentation of crime on television. However, while appreciating and drawing on the insights provided in this work, I suggest a slightly different perspective grounded in a more structural analytic approach than is typically employed in these kinds of investigations. Thus, we can develop an analysis that can also be used to frame and inform inquiries from other approaches. In order to begin to understand the complex processes involved in the relationship between television portrayals and public perceptions and knowledge of the criminal justice system, and to provide a foundation and framework for further inquiry, I propose three basic interrelated strategies, each of which has several components that can represent separate courses of research in and of themselves. First, with our focus on entertainment programs, we look to track and document related programs over time in which the main themes and protagonists are concerned with various dimensions of crime and law enforcement (e.g., police, lawyers, and judges). These can be categorized and examined along five specific dimensions, i.e., character and characterizations, subject matter, format, ratings, and scheduling (cf. Turow 1981) in order to discern trends and patterns in their presentation. More importantly, we can use them to develop a longitudinal content and discourse analysis of top-rated, prime time (and thus reaching the most people) television programs concerned with crime and the criminal justice system, in order to obtain a perspective on portrayals of criminal justice and law enforcement, and transmission of related information, over time in the entertainment medium. An overall strategy that covers the period from the early 1950s to the present would allow a consideration of the development of the television industry along with changes in society and social attitudes in general. Analysis of the programs can look to a number of competing theoretical approaches (behavioral, functional, critical, and institutional),[5] considering both explicit and implicit portrayals and messages regarding the various aspects of the television program in relation to depictions of the system of criminal justice in action. This would mean, in particular, attention to and gathering descriptive information on the story lines and on the behavior, appearance, and relationships of the active characters, and others. The programs might also be assessed in light of target audiences. For example, who are the "good guys" and who are the "bad guys"; what are their profiles? To what degree do they reflect stereotypical portrayals (or not)? Analyses can provide a sociocultural and political image of the "players" in the criminal justice system in relation to society. More to the point, they can also provide us with a comparative conception of the legal system to use as a foundation in examining public opinions and attitudes, which brings us to the next research objective. Second, we look to the public. Extensive national survey research on knowledge of the legal system and an understanding of how it works, along with questions on general television viewing habits and on the specific related television programs, is clearly needed in this area. Moreover, a comprehensive survey would cover a variety of demographic factors and other social, cultural, and political elements (e.g., age, gender, race, ethnicity, education, occupation, family, place of residence, religion, political affiliation, region, etc.). Such survey data would allow us to determine general population profiles and perspectives, and to make inferences about those profiles and perspectives relative to their television viewing habits, and ultimately in relation to perceptions and knowledge of criminal justice and law enforcement in the United States. The third strategy builds upon the cumulative findings of the other two, and provides a blanket, sweeping approach to the general problem. It is a combined comparative examination, presenting an integrative relational model that links media portrayals of the criminal justice system to general public perceptions. This kind of model ties the specific television portrayals and messages delineated in the first strategy to the population perceptions and profiles found in the second. To more fully understand the relationship between criminal justice and society, we must ask a variety of questions concerning who learns what from where or from whom, under what conditions, and with what effects. Thus, we must look to compare that which is provided through the media with that which the public _perceives_ in their consumption of the media along several dimensions, including knowledge of criminal legal procedures, and images of police and of the courts, in relation to crime and the role of the legal system in general. Supplying clues to images of the criminal justice system and the impact of television viewing on public perception and knowledge, the combined aspects of these strategies provide for an investigation of the television program as a cultural product, both as a socializing, educating force and as a social reflection. The overall approach is aimed at delineation of and insight into the socialization of the public to the system of criminal justice and its related implications. CONCLUSION The current situation in the United States is one of a social structure undergoing relatively rapid change in a number of areas in which knowledge of the criminal justice system is a significant issue. Research has shown a strong relationship between heavy television viewing and the cultivation of television-biased perceptions of reality (Altheide 1985; Gerbner and Gross 1976a; Gerbner 1993). There is a large body of interesting and significant research addressing the issue of violence on television and its effects on the viewing population. Most of the work in this area concentrates on the question of whether or not portrayals of crime and violence affect viewers in terms of engendering, rather than merely reflecting, similar attitudes and behaviors. What I suggest here is a different issue. I propose that we use television programs to determine public images of the criminal justice system itself and to determine how those images might or might not affect public learning, perceptions, and basic knowledge of the system and its operation. Moreover, we can compare those images and perceptions with "reality" in order to contribute to our understanding of the law and society relationship. This does not necessarily mean, at this point, a perfect mapping of television portrayals onto public perceptions, or that the two are perfectly coupled, depending on what those portrayals are in relation to other sources of information. However, we might expect to find a relative match and a growing amount of influence on public knowledge. Ever increasing levels of television viewing by the "postmodern" individual may lead to more television-defined public perceptions of criminal justice and law enforcement. While the accuracy of these perceptions is another issue, it is also an especially important one since an increasing number of social scientists argues that the legal system may function best when citizens are not well informed about or interested in its operation (Sarat 1975). In addition to being separately interesting and suggestive, the substantive areas and research strategies proposed here, especially in terms of their interactive examination, can lead to a somewhat different and compelling investigation of the relationship between law and society, with important theoretical and empirical implications for related cultural, political, and criminal justice studies in general. NOTES 1. I use the terms "socialize" and "socialization" here in the broad sense of transmission of culture. 2. Indeed, the broader effects of television-influenced perceptions are generally seen as supportive of the status quo. See discussion and related citations in Surette (1992). See Griswold (1994), especially Chapter 2, for a general review and critique of perspectives on reflection theory. 3. Here we have a kind of "cybernetic feedback" relationship. 4. See Lodziak (1986) for a critique of these perspectives. 5. See Saney (1986) and Lodziak (1986) for summary reviews of different perspectives. REFERENCES Acuri, A.F. (1977). "You can't take fingerprints off water: Police officers' views toward 'cop' television shows." _Human Relations_, 30(Summer): 237-247. Adler, R. (Ed). (1976). _Television as a cultural force_. New York: Facts On File. Alpert, G.P. (1985). _The American criminal justice system_. Beverly Hills: Sage. Altheide, D.L. (1985). _Media power_. Beverly Hills: Sage. Becker, H.S. (1982). _Art worlds_. Berkeley: University of California Press. Cantor, M.G., & J. Cantor. (1992). _Prime time television: Content and control_. Newbury Park: Sage. Carlson, J.M. (1985). _Prime time law enforcement_. New York: Praeger. Cavender, G., & L. Bond-Maupin. (1993). "Fear and loathing on reality television: An analysis of 'America's Most Wanted' and 'Unsolved Mysteries.'" _Sociological Inquiry_, 63(3): 305-317. Daley, R.J. (1972). "Police report on the TV cop shows." _New York Times Magazine_, (November 19): 39-40. Dominick, J.R. (1973). "Crime and law enforcement on prime time television." _Public Opinion Quarterly_, 37(Spring): 241-250. Drucker, S. (1989). "The televised mediated trial: Formal and substantive characteristics." _Communication Quarterly_, 37(4): 305-318. Gerbner, G. (1972). "Violence and television drama: Trends and symbolic functions." In G.A. Comstock & E.A. Rubinstein (Eds.), _Content and Control_ (Television and Social Behavior, Vol. 1). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Gerbner, G. (1993). "Women and minorities on television: A study in casting and fate." Report to the American Federation of Television and Radio Actors. Gerbner, G., & L. Gross. (1976a). "Living with television: The violence profile." _Journal of Communication_, 26(Spring): 172-199. Gerbner, G., & L. Gross. (1976b). "The scary world of TV's heavy viewer." _Psychology Today_, (April): 89-91. Gerbner, G., et al. (1978). "Cultural indicators: Violence profile No. 9." _Journal of Communication_, 28(Summer): 176-207. Gerbner, G., et al. (1979). "The demonstration of power: Violence profile No. 10." _Journal of Communication_, 29(Spring): 177-196. Giddens, A. (1981). _A contemporary critique of historical materialism_. London: Macmillan. Griswold, W. (1981). "American character and the American novel." _American Journal of Sociology_, 86: 740-765. Griswold, W. (1987). "The fabrication of meaning: Literary interpretation in the United States, Great Britain, and the West Indies." _American Journal of Sociology_, 92: 1077-1117. Griswold, W. (1994). _Cultures and Societies in a Changing World_. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press. Gunther, M. (1971). "You have the right to remain silent." _TV Guide_, (December 18): 7-9. Haney, C., & J. Manzolati. (1980). "Television criminology: Network illusions of criminal justice realities." In E. Aronson (Ed.), _Readings about the Social Animal_. San Francisco: Freeman. Himmelweit, H.T. (1980). "Social influence and television." In S.B. Withey & R.P. Abeles (Eds.), _Television and Social Behavior: Beyond Violence and Children_. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum. Hirsch, P.M. (1980). "The 'Scary World' world of the nonviewer and other anomalies." _Communication Research_, 7(October): 403-456. Hughes, M. (1980). "The fruits of cultivation analysis: A reexamination of some effects of television watching." _Public Opinion Quarterly_, 44(Spring): 287-302. Katsh, E. (1983). "Is television anti-law?: An inquiry into the relationship between law and the media." _Alsa Forum_, 7: 26-40. Laywood, C. (1985). "The effects of television on social interaction." _Reflections_, 53(April). Lempert, R., & J. Sanders. (1986). _An invitation to law and social science_. New York: Longman. Lewis, W.H. (1974). "Witness for the prosecution." _TV Guide_, (November 30): 5-7 Lichter, L.S., & S.R. Lichter. (1983). _Prime time crime_. Washington, D.C.: Media Institute. Lodziak, C. (1986). _The Power of television_. New York: St. Martin's Press. Oskamp, S. (1984). _Applied social psychology_. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Papazian, E. (Ed). (1988). _TV Dimensions '88_. New York: Media Dynamics. Roberts, J.V., & Doob, A. (1990). "News media influences on public views of sentencing." _Law and Human Behavior_, 14(5): 451-468. Roper Organization. (1983). _Trends in attitudes toward television and other media: A twenty-four year review_. New York: Television Information Office. Saney, P. (1986). _Crime and culture in America_. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. Sarat, A. (1975). "Support for the Legal System." _American Political Quarterly_, 3(February): 3-24. Spring, J. (1992). _Images of American life: A history of ideological management in schools, movies, radio, and television_. Albany: State University of New York Press. Stark, S. (1987). "Perry Mason meets Sonny Crockett: The history of lawyers and the police as television heroes." _University of Miami Law Review_, 42: 229-283. Surette, R. (1992). _Media, crime, and criminal justice: Images and realities_. Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole. Swidler, A. (1986). "Culture in action: Symbols and strategies." _American Sociological Review_, 51: 273-286. Turow, J. (1981). _Entertainment, education, and the hard sell: Three decades of network children's television_. New York: Praeger. Weigel, R. H., & R. Jessor. (1973). "Television and adolescent conventionality: An exploratory study." _Public Opinion Quarterly_, 37(Spring): 79-90. Winick, C., & M. Winick. (1974). "Courtroom drama on television." _Journal of Communication_, 24: 67-73. Wolff, J. (1981). _The social production of art_. New York: St. Martin's Press. SUBMITTING REVIEWS AND MANUSCRIPTS: Authors may submit reviews and manuscripts written in ASCII format to JCJPC in two ways. First reviews and manuscripts may be sent electronically to: The Editors, _Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture_, SUNYCRJ@ALBNYVM1.BITNET or SUNYCRJ@UACSC2. ALBANY.EDU. Alternatively, reviews and manuscripts may be sent via regular mail to The Editors at the University at Albany's address which can be found below. Submissions sent via regular mail should be stored on IBM formatted disks (3 1/2" or 5 1/4"). CITATION STANDARD: As there is not a universally recognized standard for citing material published in electronic journals, we recommend citing reviews and manuscripts that appear in JCJPC with the following format which conforms closely to the standards specified by the APA for printed journals: Author's Last Name, First Initial. (Date). "Title." _Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture_, Vol(Issue): Pages. (Available electronically on Internet from SUNYCRJ@UACSC2.ALBANY.EDU or on Bitnet from SUNYCRJ@ALBNYVM1.BITNET, both at the University at Albany). ACCESSING ARCHIVED FILES: To see what files the _Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture_ has archived, send a one line message to: LISTSERV@ALBNYVM1.BITNET or LISTSERV@UACSC2.ALBANY.EDU In the text of your message, use the following command: GET CJMOVIES FILELIST To access a particular file, send another one line message to: LISTSERV@ALBNYVM1.BITNET or LISTSERV@UACSC2.ALBANY.EDU In the text of your message, use the following command: GET FILENAME For example, if you want to access the first issue, use the following command: GET VOL1 ISSUE1 The file will then be sent to you in "netdata" format. EDITORIAL BOARD: Frankie Bailey, University at Albany, New York Leo Barrile, Bloomsburg University Michael Lynch, Florida State University, Tallahassee Brendan Maguire, Western Illinois University Richard McCleary, University of California, Irvine Graeme Newman, University at Albany, New York Ray Surette, Florida International University, Miami EDITORS: Sean Anderson and Gregory J. Howard, Editors _Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture_ School of Criminal Justice University at Albany Draper Hall #209 135 Western Avenue Albany, New York 12222 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT: All rights are reserved except that authors retain intellectual property rights to their articles. Reviews and manuscripts may not be republished in other places without the written permission of _JCJPC_. The contents of _JCJPC_ may be reproduced and utilized in whole or in part for nonprofit uses such as education, research, and library reference. Any use of the contents of _JCJPC_ should be cited according to the format delineated above. Any commercial use of _JCJPC_ in whole or in part by any means is strictly prohibited without written permission from _JCJPC_.